Clockwise from top left: The British Museum in London, Louvre Museum in Paris, Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Capitoline Museums in Rome, Prado Museum in Madrid, Ashmolean Museum in Oxford. AFP, Getty Images
Clockwise from top left: The British Museum in London, Louvre Museum in Paris, Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Capitoline Museums in Rome, Prado Museum in Madrid, Ashmolean Museum in Oxford. AFP, Getty Images
Clockwise from top left: The British Museum in London, Louvre Museum in Paris, Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Capitoline Museums in Rome, Prado Museum in Madrid, Ashmolean Museum in Oxford. AFP
Today marks International Museum Day, which was established by the International Council of Museums in 1977 as a way to engage its members – which now total 37,000 – in events and discussions around museology and the role of museums in the world.
It's hard to put an exact number on how many museums exist globally – organisations and researchers have proposed estimates of at least 55,000 in more than 200 countries.
Even in antiquity there is evidence of people collecting and preserving objects. But our modern definition of a museum has its roots in 17th to 18th-century Europe, where collections were placed on display in public squares and churches. This practice grew alongside expanding empires that extracted objects from their colonies, as well as the arrival of the Enlightenment.
Tracing the histories of six of the world's oldest museums reveals how these institutions and collections were built, and the ever-changing nature of these spaces today.
Ashmolean Museum
The Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, England. AFP
The foundations of this institution go back to Elias Ashmole, an English politician and lawyer who gave his collection of artefacts and other oddities to the University of Oxford, which constructed a building to house the objects. It opened to the public in 1683.
The museum is still open and running in Oxford, and its collection includes archaeological objects and fine art, such as Greek marbles, majolica pottery, antiquities from ancient Egypt, and artworks by Michelangelo, Raphael and Leonardo da Vinci.
Capitoline Museums
Piazza del Campidoglio and the Capitoline Museum on Capitoline Hill in Rome. AFP
It has been referred to as the oldest museum in the world – the Musei Capitolini in Rome was created in 1471 when Pope Sixtus IV donated a collection of bronzes to the city.
The museum's collection soon grew to include Roman inscriptions, Medieval and Renaissance art, coins and jewels, and it eventually opened to the public in 1734.
Currently run by the municipality of Rome, the museum includes three main palazzos, as well as an open plaza. Among its most famous objects is the Capitoline Wolf, which tells the mythical story about the founding of Rome.
The British Museum
Exterior view of The British Museum in central London. Getty Images
With its permanent collection of at least eight million works, The British Museum in London reflects the reach and power of the British Empire, but its history has also brought in controversy and debate about the restitution and repatriation of artefacts.
Established in 1753 by an Act of Parliament during the reign of King George II, it is considered the world's first public national museum and it began welcoming visitors in 1759.
Among the highlights of its collection are the Elgin or Parthenon Marbles from Greece that date back to about 447 to 4398 BC, as well as Egypt's Rosetta Stone. It possesses more than 100,000 Egyptian antiquities, and objects from the Classical world and the Middle East.
Louvre Museum
An exterior view of the Musee du Louvre and the Pyramide du Louvre, designed by Ieoh Ming Pei. AFP
The most-visited museum in the world, the Louvre in Paris opened in 1793. Today, it contains more than 380,000 objects and 35,000 artworks, including Leonardo's Mona Lisa.
From about the 16th century, the building was used as a palace for the French monarchy before Louis XIV left it for the Palace of Versailles in 1682 with the royal collection kept inside.
Over the next century, art academies thrived in the Louvre until the National Assembly, born out of the French Revolution, ordered the building to be turned into a museum, housing objects from Napoleon’s reign and the royal collections.
Prado Museum
The Prado Museum in Madrid, Spain. AFP
The Museo Nacional del Prado in Madrid contains objects from the Spanish Royal Collection and houses an impressive range of the country's art.
The building was designed in 1785 and was eventually assigned by a member of the Spanish monarchy as a venue to keep its collection of paintings and sculptures, but also to bolster the image of the Spanish Crown.
In 1819, the museum opened to the public for the first time and it currently has more than 7,000 paintings in its collection. Among its most notable works is Diego Velazquez's Las Meninas, which depicts Margaret Theresa of Spain as a child surrounded by her ladies-in-waiting. The painting is prized for its unique composition, with Velazquez playing with perspective and focal points, showing subjects who seemingly look out to the viewer.
The museum’s collection also includes masterpieces by Francisco Goya, Hieronymus Bosch and Titian.
Hermitage Museum
People walk outside the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia. AFP
The State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia, came to be through the efforts of Empress Catherine the Great. A strong supporter of the arts and education, she prompted the construction of the museum with the intent of housing and showcasing her collection of various items, which included paintings, books and sculpture.
The museum was founded in 1764 and it opened to the public in 1852, housing a large number of items – close to three million – from prehistoric art and antiquities to jewellery and European art, as well as a collection of Central Asian art.
1. Domestic VAT refund amendments: request your refund within five years
If a business does not apply for the refund on time, they lose their credit.
2. E-invoicing in the UAE
Businesses should continue preparing for the implementation of e-invoicing in the UAE, with 2026 a preparation and transition period ahead of phased mandatory adoption.
3. More tax audits
Tax authorities are increasingly using data already available across multiple filings to identify audit risks.
4. More beneficial VAT and excise tax penalty regime
Tax disputes are expected to become more frequent and more structured, with clearer administrative objection and appeal processes. The UAE has adopted a new penalty regime for VAT and excise disputes, which now mirrors the penalty regime for corporate tax.
5. Greater emphasis on statutory audit
There is a greater need for the accuracy of financial statements. The International Financial Reporting Standards standards need to be strictly adhered to and, as a result, the quality of the audits will need to increase.
6. Further transfer pricing enforcement
Transfer pricing enforcement, which refers to the practice of establishing prices for internal transactions between related entities, is expected to broaden in scope. The UAE will shortly open the possibility to negotiate advance pricing agreements, or essentially rulings for transfer pricing purposes.
7. Limited time periods for audits
Recent amendments also introduce a default five-year limitation period for tax audits and assessments, subject to specific statutory exceptions. While the standard audit and assessment period is five years, this may be extended to up to 15 years in cases involving fraud or tax evasion.
8. Pillar 2 implementation
Many multinational groups will begin to feel the practical effect of the Domestic Minimum Top-Up Tax (DMTT), the UAE's implementation of the OECD’s global minimum tax under Pillar 2. While the rules apply for financial years starting on or after January 1, 2025, it is 2026 that marks the transition to an operational phase.
9. Reduced compliance obligations for imported goods and services
Businesses that apply the reverse-charge mechanism for VAT purposes in the UAE may benefit from reduced compliance obligations.
10. Substance and CbC reporting focus
Tax authorities are expected to continue strengthening the enforcement of economic substance and Country-by-Country (CbC) reporting frameworks. In the UAE, these regimes are increasingly being used as risk-assessment tools, providing tax authorities with a comprehensive view of multinational groups’ global footprints and enabling them to assess whether profits are aligned with real economic activity.
Contributed by Thomas Vanhee and Hend Rashwan, Aurifer
