The year 2021 is going to be key in efforts to tackle climate change, building up to the Cop26 conference in Glasgow in November.
Leaders from around the world have already pledged improvements, most notably at a recent conference hosted by the US.
The climate change leaders' conference, organised by President Joe Biden, represented a return to the table for the US, which dropped climate change as a priority under previous president Donald Trump.
Nation after nation stepped up to make promises. Some offered new moves while others repeated old measures but the meeting appeared to put tackling climate change on the front foot.
But what was promised and what are the concerns?
United States
Pledge
To halve its 2005 carbon emissions levels by 2030. By 2024, the US would double its annual assistance to help developing countries cope with the effects of climate change.
"The science is undeniable and the cost of inaction keeps mounting," Mr Biden said. "This is a moral imperative, an economic imperative. A moment of peril but also a moment of extraordinary possibilities ... I believe we can do this,"
Reaction
Abby Maxman, chief executive of Oxfam America, described Mr Biden's announcement as a "step in the right direction" but said more action was needed.
"The richest 1 per cent of the world's population are responsible for more than twice as much carbon pollution as the 3.1 billion people who make up the poorest half of humanity," she said.
United Kingdom
Pledge
To cut its emissions by 78 per cent by 2035, with new legislation affecting shipping and aviation.
"It's vital for all of us to show that this is not all about some expensive, politically correct, green act of bunny hugging. What I'm driving at is this is about growth and jobs," Prime Minister Boris Johnson said.
Reaction
Greta Thunberg changed her Twitter bio to read "bunny hugger". Greenpeace UK said Britain does not have a plan to decarbonise homes and has earmarked billions of pounds for oil drillings and road building.
"This government is still entertaining the idea of multiple airport expansions, more oil and gas drilling and new coalmines. It still doesn't have a credible plan to decarbonise our homes and has earmarked tens of billions of pounds for new road building," Greenpeace UK's head of climate Kate Blagojevic said.
United Arab Emirates
Action
Launched a plan with Britain, the US and others, to develop technology that helps farmers in developing nations cope with the effects of climate change.
"Climate change is not a temporary concern," Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid, UAE Vice President and Prime Minister, and Ruler of Dubai said.
Reaction
Greenpeace Mena director Julien Jreissati described the Middle East as "one of the most vulnerable regions to climate change" because of water scarcity.
Germany
Pledge
In May, Germany said it now expects to cut emissions by 65 per cent by 2030 compared to 1990 levels, and by 88 per cent by 2040, with the goal of becoming carbon neutral by 2045, five years earlier than previously expected.
"Young people have reminded us that we are going too slowly rather than too quickly," said Chancellor Angela Merkel.
Reaction
Despite an increasingly climate-conscious electorate, cars remain cool. Germany, home to BMW, Mercedes and Audi, has a strong motoring lobby and has not set a date for phasing out internal combustion engines.
China
Plan
China wants to hit peak carbon dioxide emissions before 2030, limit coal-fired power and achieve carbon neutrality before 2060.
"China has committed to move from peak carbon to carbon neutrality in a much shorter timespan than many development countries might take, and that requires extraordinary hard efforts from China," President Xi Jinping said.
Reaction
The International Energy Agency named China as the only major economy to see rising coal consumption in 2020 and forecasts set its consumption to rise by 4 per cent in 2021.
Environmentalists at Chatham House and E3G said Mr Xi's commitment was positive but did not mark a breakthrough, and still allows for the construction of hundreds of coal-fired power stations over the next five years.
Saudi Arabia
Pledge
King Salman bin Abdulaziz vowed that renewables would produce half of Saudi Arabia's energy needs by 2030 during his opening remarks at the climate summit.
"In accordance with the Saudi vision 2030, we have launched packages of strategies and regulations, such as the national environmental strategy, with the aim of producing 50 per cent of the kingdom's energy needs by 2030 using clean renewable sources," said the king.
Reaction
There was no mention of leaving oil in the ground. Chatham House energy analyst Glada Lahn said that Saudi Arabia, along with the US and Qatar, are not politically ready to talk about a managed decline of the oil sector.
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Researcher Michelle Havlik of Australia dives into the water during a research trip in the Red Sea, offshore of the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, near Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Reuters -
Researcher Nathan Geraldi of the US dives during a research trip in the Red Sea, offshore of the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, near Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Reuters -
Scientists at KAUST are working on a new technology to help restore coral globally. Reuters -
If it succeeds, KAUST's experiment may allow coral from Saudi Arabia to be transplanted to other parts of the world. Reuters -
The Red Sea is warmer than almost any other large body of water in the world. Reuters -
Red Sea coral has adapted, over hundreds of thousands of years, to the higher temperatures. Reuters -
KAUST scientists are developing techniques that will grow reefs in a few years rather than hundreds of years. Reuters -
Experts plan to place hundreds of similar tanks in public places, such as airports and resorts, that will allow tiny corals to grow until they're large enough to be transplanted into the wild. Reuters -
Another Saudi project is the planned fossil-fuel-free Neom City on the Red Sea near Egypt and Israel, and bordering Jordan. Reuters -
The Saudis hope these embryonic projects will spur tourism and put the country at the fore of renewable-energy generation, carbon-sequestration technology and solar-powered production of hydrogen gas. Reuters -
Carlos Duarte, professor of Marine Science and Tarek Ahmed Juffali Research Chair in Red Sea Ecology at KAUST, washes his dog at his home at the campus. Reuters -
A view of the security wall at KAUST. Reuters -
A beacon rises above the harbour at KAUST. Reuters -
Wooden shutters and balconies adorn the front of a building in the Old City of Jeddah. Reuters
India
Action
Launched partnership with US to tackle climate change and repeated a promise to install 450 gigawatts of renewable energy capacity.
"To combat climate change, concrete action is needed. Together we will help mobilise investment, demonstrate clean technology and green collaborations," Prime Minister Narendra Modi said.
Reaction
India, the world's third largest emitter behind China and the US, was criticised its continued financing of overseas power plants.
Brazil
Plan
President Jair Bolsonaro said his country would work on recommitting to its 2015 pledge under the Paris climate agreement to eliminate illegal deforestation.
"There must be fair payment for the environmental services provided by our biomes to the planet at large as a way to recognise the economic nature of environmental conservation activities," he said.
Reaction
It was unclear how Brazil would pay for the additional enforcement required and environmentalists were sceptical about the president following through on the pledges.
Indonesia
Plan
President Joko Widodo said Indonesia has reached its lowest level of deforestation and is "rehabilitating mangrove forests" as a carbon sink.
"We are currently rehabilitating 620,000 hectares of mangrove forests until 2024, the largest in the world, with carbon absorption reaching fourfold higher than that of tropical forests," Mr Widodo said.
Reaction
Coal production rose in Indonesia last year, the IEA said.
South Korea
Pledge
Made two pledges, one raising its targets for reducing its emissions and eliminating public financing of coal-fired power plants.
"Korea will end all public financing at home or overseas of coal-fired power plants," President Moon Jae-in said.
Reaction
Greenpeace East Asia welcomed the move but said South Korea, alongside China and Japan, needed to adopt more ambitious targets.
Russia
Pledge
To "significantly" reduce the country's emissions over the next 30 years, while it noted the importance of carbon capture.
"The fate of our entire planet, the development prospects of each country, the wellbeing and quality of life of people largely depend on the success of these efforts," President Vladimir Putin said.
Reaction
Russia's emissions are rising. Paul Bledsoe, a former Bill Clinton-era climate official and professor of environmental policy, said: "Its emissions are out of control."
Canada
Pledge
Upped its target for cutting emissions from 30 per cent of 2005 levels to at least 40 per cent.
"Today, Canada is in a position to raise our climate ambition once again. Our new climate target for 2030 is to reduce our 2005 emission levels by 40-45%," Prime Minister Justin Trudeau said.
Reaction
Catherine Abreu, executive director of Climate Action Network Canada, said the new target was not in line with securing a 1.5°C compatible future – a goal she said would require a 60 per cent emissions reduction.
Japan
Pledge
Will aim to reduce emissions by 46 per cent in 2030 compared to 2013 levels, almost doubling its previous commitment of 26 per cent.
"Japan is ready to demonstrate its leadership for worldwide decarbonisation," Prime Minister Yoshihide Suga said.
Reaction
Environmentalists had wanted Japan to pledge at least 50 per cent. It is another of the countries identified by Greenpeace as needing more ambitious targets.
New Zealand
Plan
No new pledges but urged countries to follow its lead in pricing carbon, ending subsidies for fossil fuels and financing environmental adaption.
"We must do better to support countries to adapt to the effects of climate change," Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern said.
Reaction
Greenpeace executive director Russel Norman said: "Ardern is encouraging other countries to follow New Zealand's lead on climate. Quite frankly, that'd be a disaster, considering our government is too timid to regulate our biggest climate polluter."
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Egrets are seen on mangrove trees during sunrise at Kajhu beach, Aceh province, Indonesia. AFP -
Fire burns on the slopes of Table Mountain in Cape Town, South Africa. AP Photo -
A fisherman on his pirogue throws a net in the Niger river in Mopti, Mali. Fishing is threatened by climate changes, unselective fishing and armed groups present in the rural zones in central Mali. AFP -
World leaders virtually attend the Leaders Summit on Climate, as seen from the East Room of the White House. AP Photo -
US President Joe Biden speaks to the virtual Leaders Summit on Climate, from the East Room of the White House in Washington, DC. AP Photo -
US Vice President Kamala Harris speaks to the virtual Leaders Summit on Climate, from the East Room of the White House. AP Photo -
British Prime Minister Boris Johnson speaks during the virtual Leaders Summit on Climate in a video screenshot. Bloomberg -
India's Prime Minister Narendra Modi speaks during the virtual Leaders Summit on Climate in a video screenshot. Bloomberg -
German Chancellor Angela Merkel attends a virtual international climate summit with US President Joe Biden in Berlin, Germany. AP -
Chinese President Xi Jinping speaks during the virtual Leaders Summit on Climate. Bloomberg -
French President Emmanuel Macron attends a Climate Summit video conference, at the Elysee Palace in Paris, France. EPA -
Sheikh Hasina Wajed, Bangladesh's prime minister, right, speaks during the virtual Leaders Summit on Climate. Bloomberg -
Yoshihide Suga, Japan's prime minister, speaks during the virtual Leaders Summit on Climate. Bloomberg -
Danish Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen listens to US President Joe Biden during a virtual global climate summit, at The Prime Minister's Office in Copenhagen, Denmark. Reuters -
Brazil President Jair Bolsonaro speaks during the virtual Leaders Summit on Climate. Bloomberg -
Russian President Vladimir Putin attends a virtual Leaders Summit on Climate from Moscow, Russia. EPA -
Ursula von der Leyen, president of the European Commission, speaks during the virtual Leaders Summit on Climate. Bloomberg -
US President Joe Biden speaks to the virtual Leaders Summit on Climate as Special Presidential Envoy for Climate John Kerry looks on. AP Photo -
Justin Trudeau, Canada's prime minister, speaks during the virtual Leaders Summit on Climate. Bloomberg -
President Joe Biden, Secretary of State Antony Blinken, left, and Special Presidential Envoy for Climate John Kerry, right, listen during the virtual Leaders Summit on Climate. AP Photo -
Resident Lourdes Martinez fills water tanks with water for her family daily use as Mexico City and the metropolitan area is running out of water as drought takes hold of the city of almost 22 million people in the municipality of Xochimilco in Mexico City, Mexico. Reuters -
Smoke bellows from a power plant on a polluted day in Cangzhou, some 180 kms from Beijing, in northern China's Hebei province. AFP -
A man collects garbage, including plastic waste, at the beach of Costa del Este, in Panama City. AFP -
A polar bear stands on melting sea ice in Svalbard, Norway. AFP -
Sheikh Mohamed Bin Rashid attends the Leaders Summit on Climate hosted remotely by US President Joe Biden. -
Sheikh Mohamed Bin Rashid attends the Leaders Summit on Climate hosted remotely by US President Joe Biden. -
Sheikh Mohamed Bin Rashid attends the Leaders Summit on Climate hosted remotely by US President Joe Biden. -
Sheikh Mohamed Bin Rashid attends the Leaders Summit on Climate hosted remotely by US President Joe Biden. -
South Korean President Moon Jae-in speaks during the virtual Leaders Summit on Climate, at the presidential Blue House in Seoul, South Korea, Thursday, April 22, 2021. (Lee Jin-wook/Yonhap via AP) -
Charles Michel attends a virtual Global Climate Summit via video link from the European Council building in Brussels, Thursday, April 22, 2021. (Johanna Geron, Pool via AP) -
epa09152991 A screen shows Xie Zhenhua, China's Special Envoy for Climate Change, speaking during a media briefing on Chinese President Xi Jinping's attendance at virtual international Leaders Summit on Climate, at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in Beijing, China, 22 April 2021. Around 40 international leaders attended the summit called by US President Biden. The meeting is intended to underline the urgency and economic benefits of stronger climate action on the road to the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) in Glasgow in November 2021. EPA/ROMAN PILIPEY -
epa09152984 A handout photo made available by the Presidency of Brazil that shows President Jair Bolsonaro, along with the Minister of the Environment, Ricardo Salles (L), during the climate summit convened by the US President, Joe Biden, at the Planalto Palace in Brasilia, Brazil, 22 April 2021. Brazilian President Jair Bolsonaro announced that his country will seek to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, ten years before the previous environmental commitment. Around 40 international leaders attended the summit called by US President Biden. The meeting is intended to underline the urgency and economic benefits of stronger climate action on the road to the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) in Glasgow in November 2021. EPA/MARCOS CORREA / BRAZIL PRESIDENCY / HANDOUT MANDATORY CREDIT: HANDOUT EDITORIAL USE ONLY/NO SALES -
Pope Francis speaks during the virtual Leaders Summit on Climate in a video screenshot on Thursday, April 22, 2021. President Biden pledged to cut U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in half by 2030 as he convenes 40 world leaders in a virtual summit intended to demonstrate renewed American resolve to fight climate change and pressure wary nations to raise their own ambitions. Source: White House/Bloomberg -
BERLIN, GERMANY - APRIL 22: German Chancellor Angela Merkel takes part in the virtual international climate summit with US President Joe Biden, on April 22, 2021 in Berlin, Germany. The meeting aims to underline the urgency and economic benefits of stronger climate action on the way to the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) in Glasgow in November. Around 40 top international politicians take part in the summit. (Photo by Kay Nietfeld - Pool/Getty Images) -
Prime Minister Boris Johnson listens to Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi (on screen) during the opening session of the virtual global Leaders Summit on Climate, as he sits in the Downing Street Briefing Room in central London, Thursday April 22, 2021. The virtual event attended by many national leaders from their countries around the globe, to raise global ambition on climate change is taking place on Earth Day, and hosted by US President Joe Biden. (Justin Tallis/Pool via AP)
Mexico
Plan
President Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador praised his nation's reforestation efforts.
"We have planted 700 million plants," he said.
Reaction
One of the influential voices of climate activism is Xiye Bastida, whose family moved from Mexico to New York after floods and droughts devastated her hometown for years. She demanded governments act decisively using the tools available to end the climate emergency.
Australia
Plan
Investing in "new technology solutions" including $20 billion to cut the cost of clean hydrogen and carbon capture.
"We are creating our own hydrogen balance, where we will transform our transport industries and mining and resource centres, and manufacturing our fuel and energy production," Prime Minister Scott Morrison said.
Reaction
Australia faces criticism for not setting a timeframe for reaching net zero, and for not taking meaningful action on climate change.
"The government has made a mockery of Australia on the world stage," Greenpeace Australia Pacific spokeswoman Nelli Stevenson said.
Argentina
Pledge
Says it will strengthen its emissions cuts, deploy more renewables, reduce methane emissions and end illegal deforestation.
"We have to be aware of the suicidal path we are walking … we have to work together, we have to have social justice, financial justice and environmental justice," President Alberto Fernandez said.
Reaction
The Argentine environmental activist group Vida Silvestre said the country has a lot to do and faces "enormous challenges" but must act quickly to turn words into action.
South Africa
Plan
To strengthen its commitment to cutting emissions by bringing forward its planned peak emissions by 10 years to 2025.
“Climate change is the most pressing issue of our time. It is a global phenomenon from which developing economies are particularly vulnerable,” President Matamela Cyril Ramaphosa said.
Reaction
A disappointed Greenpeace wants South Africa to adopt a bill to “drastically reduce emissions” by the Cop26 conference later this year, and move away from coal towards renewables.
