China celebrated seven decades of Communist Party rule on Tuesday with a massive display of military and economic power in central Beijing.
An honour guard carried the Chinese flag through Tiananmen Square, the country's symbolic political heart, in front of thousands of flag-waving spectators . Artillery was used to fire a salute.
About 15,000 soldiers with tanks and high-tech weapons filed through the square for an event celebrating China's journey from a country broken by war and poverty to being the world's second-largest economy.
President Xi Jinping, dressed in a slate-grey Mao suit, promised peaceful development but said the armed forces would defend China's sovereignty. He took part in the proceedings with other Chinese leaders, including former presidents Hu Jintao and Jiang Zemin.
The parade is the country's most important event of the year as China tries to project an image of confidence in the face of mounting challenges, including nearly four months of anti-government protests in Hong Kong and an economy-sapping trade war with the United States.
'No force can ever shake the status of China'
Mr Xi said the country's military should resolutely safeguard China's sovereignty, security and development interests, and firmly uphold world peace.
"No force can ever shake the status of China, or stop the Chinese people and nation from marching forward," Mr Xi said from the Gate of Heavenly Peace, where Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China on this day in 1949.
China must maintain lasting prosperity and stability in Hong Kong and Macao, promote the peaceful development of relations with self-ruled Taiwan and "continue to strive for the motherland's complete reunification", he added.
Mr Xi, whose military modernisation programme has rattled nerves around the region, then descended to the street and inspected row upon row of hardware and immaculately presented troops.
Riding past in a black limousine, Mr Xi bellowed; "Hello comrades, hard-working comrades!"
The massed ranks of soldiers shouted back: "Follow the Party! Fight to win! Forge exemplary conduct!"
Beijing lockdown
Mr Xi remains broadly popular in China for his aggressive campaign against corruption and for propelling what is now the world's second-biggest economy to the forefront of global politics.
But the Communist Party remains nervous about its grip on power and international standing.
The capital was locked down for the parade. Police told residents whose houses look on to the parade route not to look out their windows.
There will be a civilian parade too, of students, ethnic minorities and even a few foreigners, walking or travelling in floats celebrating China's achievements, officials said last week.
Once the show is over, 70,000 doves will be released to symbolise peace, according to state media.
In the evening, fireworks will light up Beijing.
Hong Kong protests
Mr Xi faces mounting challenges, notably in Hong Kong, where more large-scale protests were expected on Tuesday. Police said there was the threat of a "very serious, violent attack".
Hong Kong went into lockdown on Tuesday with barricades in the city centre, closed stores and a heavy riot-police presence. Embattled Hong Kong leader Carrie Lam is in Beijing for the anniversary celebrations.
Another challenge is Chinese-claimed Taiwan, a free-wheeling democracy with little interest in being run by Beijing and which will hold a presidential election in January.
There are also restive minorities in Tibet and heavily Muslim Xinjiang, where China has faced international criticism for detaining up to one million ethnic Uighurs in what Beijing says is a de-radicalisation scheme.
