Millions of Turks living overseas wrapped up voting on Tuesday in a tense election that has turned into a referendum on President Recep Tayyip Erdogan's polarising two-decade rule.
Turkey's longest-serving leader and the social transformation spearheaded by his Justice and Development Party, or AKP, will face judgment from voters on Sunday when they head to the polls in the presidential and parliamentary election.
The election will be Turkey's most consequential in generations and the toughest of the 69-year-old's career.
Polls show Mr Erdogan locked in a tight battle with secular rival Kemal Kilicdaroglu and his powerful alliance of six parties that span Turkey's cultural and political divide.
The first votes were cast by Turks in Europe, many of whom moved from poorer provinces to Western Europe under job programmes aimed at combating the continent's labour shortage following the Second World War.
Such voters comprise 3.4 million of Turkey's 64.1 million registered electorate and tend to support more conservative candidates.
Official turnout on the morning of the last day of overseas voting on Tuesday exceeded 51 per cent — a touch higher than in the last general election that Mr Erdogan won in 2018.
Mr Kilicdaroglu's Republican People's Party, or CHP, has been trying to eat into Mr Erdogan's traditional base of support by organising daily buses to take voters to the Turkish consulate in Berlin.
Germany accounts for nearly half of Turkey's diaspora vote.
Election rallies in Turkey ahead of May 14 elections — in pictures
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Turkish President and People's Alliance's candidate Recep Tayyip Erdogan at a campaign rally in Ankara. AFP -
Emine Erdogan, the President's wife, greets his supporters in Ankara on Sunday. AFP -
Supporters of Mr Erdogan at the Ankara rally. AFP -
Mr and Mrs Erdogan wave to supporters. AFP -
Mr Erdogan delivers his speech in Ankara on Sunday. AFP -
Mr Erdogan delivers his speech in Ankara on Sunday. AFP -
Mr Erdogan delivers his speech in Ankara on Sunday. AFP -
Supporters of Mr Erdogan wave Turkish flags at the Ankara rally. AFP -
The Erdogans wave to supporters. AFP -
Erdogan supporters smile at the campaign rally. AFP -
Supporters listen to Mr Erdogan's address in Ankara on Sunday. AP -
Mr Erdogan speaks with an Ankara football club's scarf around his neck. AP -
Supporters of Turkey's Republican People's Party chairman and Presidential candidate Kemal Kilicdaroglu rally in Izmir, Turkey, on Sunday. Republican People's Party Press Service / AFP -
Mr Kilicdaroglu delivers a speech in Izmir. Republican People's Party Press Service / AFP -
Mr Kilicdaroglu and his wife Selvi wave to supporters. Republican People's Party Press Service / AFP -
Mr and Mrs Kilicdaroglu pose in front of thousands of his supporters. Republican People's Party Press Service / AFP -
Mr Kilicdaroglu's supporters throng in Izmir. Republican People's Party Press Service / AFP -
Supporters of Mr Kilicdaroglu make the heart gesture in Izmir. Republican People's Party Press Service / AFP -
Supporters wave flags and chant while awaiting the arrival of CHP presidential candidate Kemal Kilicdaroglu at a campaign rally on Sunday in Izmir, Turkey. He is considered to pose a major threat to President Recep Tayyip Erdogan's long rule in the May elections. Getty -
Mr Kilicdaroglu addresses his supporters on Sunday. Republican People's Party Press Service / AFP -
Supporters await Mr Kilicdaroglu's arrival in Izmir. Getty -
Supporters await Mr Kilicdaroglu's arrival in Izmir. Getty -
The Kilicdaroglus return the heart gesture to his supporters. Getty -
Supporters await Mr Kilicdaroglu's arrival in Izmir. Getty
“It's not just a presidential election,” opposition supporter Katresu Ergez said while waiting for a CHP bus.
“It's about voting for the future of the country, whether democracy will be restored or whether it will go further towards dictatorship.”
Local CHP chapter co-leader Ercan Yaprak sounded confident that the opposition had finally mustered the numbers to end Mr Erdogan's undefeated record in national votes.
“I think people sense that it's time for change,” he told AFP.
The close race has been accompanied by spates of violence that reflect the anger running through Turkey's polarised society during its deepest economic crisis since the 1990s.
Dutch police said on Sunday they had to break up a “massive brawl involving some 300 people” at a polling station in Amsterdam.
Police in the French city of Marseille used tear gas to stop a similar fight between Mr Erdogan's supporters and his opponents last week.
That did not stop a second brawl from breaking out at the same Marseille polling station later in the day.
Tension boiled over during a tour of Turkey's conservative heartland on Sunday by Istanbul's popular opposition mayor Ekrem Imamoglu.
Right-wing protesters pelted his campaign bus with rocks and bottles while he was trying to deliver a speech from its roof.
Turkey's defence ministry said on Tuesday it had dismissed an infantry sergeant pending an investigation into his involvement in the violence.
The incident prompted Mr Kilicdaroglu — a 74-year-old former civil servant who wants to make Mr Imamoglu his vice president — to appeal for everyone to “please, please stay calm”.
“We are going to an election and not to war,” Mr Kilicdaroglu said in a televised interview.
The febrile atmosphere reflects the high stakes for all sides.
The opposition is casting the election as decisive for Turkey's democratic future.
Mr Erdogan centralised power and unleashed sweeping purges in the second decade of his rule.
His courtship of Russia and military incursions into Syria have also chilled his once-warm relations with the West.
But the Turkish leader still commands support among poorer and more religious voters who remember the corruption and hardship that blighted half a century of secular rule.
Mr Erdogan staged a show-of-force rally in Istanbul on Sunday that drew hundreds of thousands of fervent followers.
He announced a new 45 per cent rise in wages for 700,000 state workers on Tuesday — the latest in a long line of such announcement during the campaign.
“Erdogan is throwing the kitchen sink, the cooker, the washing machine and the entire contents of the Turkish house at these elections,” emerging markets economist Timothy Ash remarked.
