Millennia-old mosques, ancient thermal baths and grand remains are scattered across Europe as markers of the Islamic empires that once ruled parts of the continent.
From Spain to Hungary, Bulgaria, Greece, France and Portugal, tourists can see impressive physical evidence of the influence of the Ottoman Empire and Al Andalus Kingdom, the two Islamic states that most obviously shaped Europe. Here are three cities where the Islamic imprint can be explored by travellers.
Sofia, Bulgaria
In among a cluster of Catholic churches in the capital of Christian-majority Bulgaria, a 500-year-old building stands out. I join a line of tourists entering this beautiful old structure, which is opposite the Sofia Central Market Hall in the city’s downtown area. Inside is a ceiling decorated with intricate mosaics, with a large piece of Islamic calligraphy at its heart.
This is Banya Bashi, the main mosque of Sofia. Appearance wise, this city is most obviously shaped by its historic links to the USSR and the Roman Empire. Sofia bulges with hulking remnants of those eras, such as the stunning, gold-domed Russian Orthodox Alexander Nevsky Cathedral and the fourth-century Rotunda church, built by the Romans when their empire included what is now Bulgaria.
Yet Sofia’s Islamic history runs equally deep. For 500 years Bulgaria was under Islamic rule as a part of the Ottoman Empire. That helps explain why Banya Bashi, with its teal dome and towering minaret, is like a miniature version of the iconic Blue Mosque in Istanbul, the Turkish city that was the Ottoman capital.
Banya Bashi was created by the most famous of all Ottoman architects, Mimar Sinan, who in the 1500s designed dozens of mosques and bridges that are now tourist attractions throughout Turkey, Greece and Bulgaria. Sinan worked for the Ottoman sultan, Suleiman the Great, under whose leadership this empire reached its peak, seizing Hungary and large parcels of North Africa and the Middle East.
By the time the Ottomans finally lost control of Bulgaria in the 1870s, their commanding empire was crumbling. Tourists to Sofia can learn about Bulgaria’s Islamic period at the city’s huge National Museum of History. They can also travel to the pretty Bulgarian city of Plovdiv, where the mighty Dzhumaya Mosque is in fantastic condition, more than 600 years after it was built.
Budapest, Hungary
As well as being one of Europe’s oldest zoos, established in 1866, Budapest Zoo & Botanical Garden is an oddly beautiful complex. It has a quirky melange of architectural styles, from sober communist structures to its whimsical art nouveau entrance and an enclosure that mimics a Transylvanian church.
Yet the building that held my attention once I entered this leafy space was decorated by domes, a minaret and blue-green glazed tiles. It is immediately reminiscent of the Ottoman architecture of Istanbul.
This makes sense. For about 150 years, until the late 1600s, the Hungarian capital was occupied by the Ottomans. Although this magnificent enclosure was not built until the early 1900s, long after the Ottomans departed Budapest, it stands as a reminder of the sizeable imprint of Islam on this city.
Across the Danube river from this zoo, overlooking downtown Budapest, are ancient relics of the Ottoman occupation. This area, which offers tourists gorgeous views across the city, has three popular attractions that date from the Islamic era.
They include the large Rudas and Kiraly thermal baths, both more than 400 years old. Visitors to these baths can enjoy a steam soak or a traditional hammam experience. On the hilltop above Kiraly bath, tourists come to see the stately tomb of one of Suleiman the Great’s most influential aides, Gul Baba. A popular site of pilgrimage for Turkish Muslims, this stone mausoleum is surrounded by a sublime rose garden, making it a worthy attraction for any traveller.
Cordoba, Spain
Perhaps my favourite building in all of Europe is in the overlooked southern Spanish city of Cordoba. Called La Mezquita, it is not just visually spectacular, but also unique in that it’s simultaneously a mosque and a cathedral. A monumental Moorish structure that dates back more than 1,200 years, it looks like a fortress from the outside, because of the thick, lofty stone walls that surround it.
That imposing appearance gives way, inside, to delicate design features. There are few interiors in the world more photogenic than the Mezquita’s main prayer hall. Dozens of arches embellished by stripes create spellbinding symmetry and contrast. Its soaring ceilings heighten the drama.
Just like Sofia and Budapest, Cordoba was moulded by the Roman Empire, a legacy exemplified by the 2,000-year-old Roman bridge that spans the Guadalquivir river, which runs through the city. Both times I visited Cordoba, and walked north across that remarkably old structure, it felt like I was slipping back into a bygone century, so well preserved and antique is Cordoba’s adjoining Old Town, which is home to La Mezquita.
Islamic motifs are common throughout this Unesco-listed Old Town. That’s due to the lasting influence of Al Andalus, a Muslim kingdom that from the early eighth century to the early 11th century ruled most of the Iberian Peninsula, including parts of what are now Spain, Portugal and France. Cordoba remained under strong Islamic influence until the late 15th century. Now this southern region of Spain, which includes fellow tourist favourites Seville and Granada, is called Andalusia, a reference to this key period in its history.
Ten tax points to be aware of in 2026
1. Domestic VAT refund amendments: request your refund within five years
If a business does not apply for the refund on time, they lose their credit.
2. E-invoicing in the UAE
Businesses should continue preparing for the implementation of e-invoicing in the UAE, with 2026 a preparation and transition period ahead of phased mandatory adoption.
3. More tax audits
Tax authorities are increasingly using data already available across multiple filings to identify audit risks.
4. More beneficial VAT and excise tax penalty regime
Tax disputes are expected to become more frequent and more structured, with clearer administrative objection and appeal processes. The UAE has adopted a new penalty regime for VAT and excise disputes, which now mirrors the penalty regime for corporate tax.
5. Greater emphasis on statutory audit
There is a greater need for the accuracy of financial statements. The International Financial Reporting Standards standards need to be strictly adhered to and, as a result, the quality of the audits will need to increase.
6. Further transfer pricing enforcement
Transfer pricing enforcement, which refers to the practice of establishing prices for internal transactions between related entities, is expected to broaden in scope. The UAE will shortly open the possibility to negotiate advance pricing agreements, or essentially rulings for transfer pricing purposes.
7. Limited time periods for audits
Recent amendments also introduce a default five-year limitation period for tax audits and assessments, subject to specific statutory exceptions. While the standard audit and assessment period is five years, this may be extended to up to 15 years in cases involving fraud or tax evasion.
8. Pillar 2 implementation
Many multinational groups will begin to feel the practical effect of the Domestic Minimum Top-Up Tax (DMTT), the UAE's implementation of the OECD’s global minimum tax under Pillar 2. While the rules apply for financial years starting on or after January 1, 2025, it is 2026 that marks the transition to an operational phase.
9. Reduced compliance obligations for imported goods and services
Businesses that apply the reverse-charge mechanism for VAT purposes in the UAE may benefit from reduced compliance obligations.
10. Substance and CbC reporting focus
Tax authorities are expected to continue strengthening the enforcement of economic substance and Country-by-Country (CbC) reporting frameworks. In the UAE, these regimes are increasingly being used as risk-assessment tools, providing tax authorities with a comprehensive view of multinational groups’ global footprints and enabling them to assess whether profits are aligned with real economic activity.
Contributed by Thomas Vanhee and Hend Rashwan, Aurifer
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Mercer, the investment consulting arm of US services company Marsh & McLennan, expects its wealth division to at least double its assets under management (AUM) in the Middle East as wealth in the region continues to grow despite economic headwinds, a company official said.
Mercer Wealth, which globally has $160 billion in AUM, plans to boost its AUM in the region to $2-$3bn in the next 2-3 years from the present $1bn, said Yasir AbuShaban, a Dubai-based principal with Mercer Wealth.
“Within the next two to three years, we are looking at reaching $2 to $3 billion as a conservative estimate and we do see an opportunity to do so,” said Mr AbuShaban.
Mercer does not directly make investments, but allocates clients’ money they have discretion to, to professional asset managers. They also provide advice to clients.
“We have buying power. We can negotiate on their (client’s) behalf with asset managers to provide them lower fees than they otherwise would have to get on their own,” he added.
Mercer Wealth’s clients include sovereign wealth funds, family offices, and insurance companies among others.
From its office in Dubai, Mercer also looks after Africa, India and Turkey, where they also see opportunity for growth.
Wealth creation in Middle East and Africa (MEA) grew 8.5 per cent to $8.1 trillion last year from $7.5tn in 2015, higher than last year’s global average of 6 per cent and the second-highest growth in a region after Asia-Pacific which grew 9.9 per cent, according to consultancy Boston Consulting Group (BCG). In the region, where wealth grew just 1.9 per cent in 2015 compared with 2014, a pickup in oil prices has helped in wealth generation.
BCG is forecasting MEA wealth will rise to $12tn by 2021, growing at an annual average of 8 per cent.
Drivers of wealth generation in the region will be split evenly between new wealth creation and growth of performance of existing assets, according to BCG.
Another general trend in the region is clients’ looking for a comprehensive approach to investing, according to Mr AbuShaban.
“Institutional investors or some of the families are seeing a slowdown in the available capital they have to invest and in that sense they are looking at optimizing the way they manage their portfolios and making sure they are not investing haphazardly and different parts of their investment are working together,” said Mr AbuShaban.
Some clients also have a higher appetite for risk, given the low interest-rate environment that does not provide enough yield for some institutional investors. These clients are keen to invest in illiquid assets, such as private equity and infrastructure.
“What we have seen is a desire for higher returns in what has been a low-return environment specifically in various fixed income or bonds,” he said.
“In this environment, we have seen a de facto increase in the risk that clients are taking in things like illiquid investments, private equity investments, infrastructure and private debt, those kind of investments were higher illiquidity results in incrementally higher returns.”
The Abu Dhabi Investment Authority, one of the largest sovereign wealth funds, said in its 2016 report that has gradually increased its exposure in direct private equity and private credit transactions, mainly in Asian markets and especially in China and India. The authority’s private equity department focused on structured equities owing to “their defensive characteristics.”
