The Austrian biologist Paul Kammerer's experiments with the  midwife toad were widely dismissed by the scientific community as fraudulent.
The Austrian biologist Paul Kammerer's experiments with the midwife toad were widely dismissed by the scientific community as fraudulent.

The toad that's shaking science



When the Austrian biologist Paul Kammerer was found dead, a gun by his side, in September 1926, the reason for his despair seemed obvious. For years there had been rumours that he was a fraud, and a few weeks earlier a leading researcher hinted at proof that Kammerer had invented data to support his crazy ideas about evolution. While his obituaries tried to put a positive gloss on the debacle, many scientists believed his death proved his guilt, and his name was quickly forgotten by all but a few historians. But now the story of Kammerer has taken a dramatic new twist, following research suggesting that his "fraudulent" work was a major breakthrough decades ahead of its time. If confirmed, Kammerer will be seen as one of the pioneers of evolution theory, alongside the likes of Darwin himself.

At the time he performed his notorious experiments, biologists were just beginning to combine Darwin's theory of evolution with the idea of inheritance of traits via genes. No one had any idea what genes actually were, but most biologists were convinced they were the drivers of evolution, via the twin effects of natural selection and mutation. Most biologists, but not all, suspected there had to be more to evolution.

He became intrigued by the ideas of the 18th-century French naturalist Jean Lamarck, who had argued that if creatures acquired some useful trait during their lifetime, they could pass it on to their offspring, so they too would benefit. As an example, Lamarck pointed to the giraffe, which he said was simply a type of antelope that had steadily acquired a longer neck through stretching upwards to pick leaves off trees.

Even at the time, Lamarck's ideas about the inheritance of acquired characteristics faced critics, who pointed out that, for example, the sons of blacksmiths are not born with bulging biceps. In any case, it was far from clear how a lifetime's experiences could end up permanently modifying some trait of a living species. By the start of the 20th century, Lamarck's theory was regarded as patent nonsense by many leading biologists. Yet Kammerer, never one to follow the herd, believed the only way to know for sure was via the scientific method.

He devised an experiment to see if he could force living creatures to acquire a new trait during their lifetime, and then see if it could persist down the generations. Success might not reveal how the process worked, but it would at least show there was more to evolution than organisms just passively waiting for new traits to emerge at random. By the 1920s, Kammerer was making headlines with experiments involving marine creatures that seemed to confirm Lamarck's theory. The most famous centred on an amphibian called the midwife toad.

Unlike most frogs and toads, this creature breeds on dry land, its curious name coming from the way the male carries the fertilised eggs on its back until they are ready to emerge as tadpoles. Kammerer wondered if he could force some midwife toads to give up their normal traits, and instead breed in water, leaving their eggs there as well, rather than moving them around. Kept in a hot, dry enclosure, the toads sought sanctuary in the coolness of water provided by Kammerer, and set about breeding and leaving their eggs there. Over 95 per cent of the eggs failed to turn into tadpoles, but those that did led to toads which now preferred to breed in water. And, just as Lamarck's theory predicted, these eggs in turn produced offspring with the same preference.

Kammerer continued the experiment through six generations of toads, and claimed that they all showed the same acquired trait. More remarkable still, some of the toads also showed signs of acquiring additional new traits, such as modified forelimbs that allowed them to mate more effectively with females in water. Kammerer's apparent confirmation of Lamarckian evolution attracted huge interest - and opprobrium. In 1923, the distinguished English biologist William Bateson launched an attack on the reliability of Kammerer's data in the pages of the journal Nature. Then others joined in, among them the American biologist Kingsley Noble, who claimed to have found evidence of black ink being used to fake the appearance of modified limbs.

Right up until the end, Kammerer insisted he had done nothing wrong - and allowed others to check his claims. In his final note, he hinted that his despair was the result of an unhappy relationship, rather than being "outed" as a fraud. Some biologists performed similar experiments with other creatures, and found similar results. It made no difference: Kammerer's suicide was widely assumed to be proof of guilt, and his claims were forgotten.

Now, more than 80 years after his untimely death at the age of 46, Kammerer's reputation may be about to undergo a major transformation. New research suggests that Kammerer's results are consistent with effects at the heart of an emerging field of biology, known as epigenetics. Put simply, epigenetics focuses on processes in which new traits appear in organisms without any changes in their DNA. Such processes include so-called methylation, in which a small group of molecules becomes attached to DNA, changing its behaviour without altering its genetic information.

According to Dr Alexander Vargas, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Chile, such epigenetic effects may have been triggered by the switch from dry to watery conditions. The result would be the emergence of new traits suited to the new environment - which is precisely what Kammerer claimed to have found. Writing in the current issue of the Journal of Experimental Zoology, Dr Vargas argues that new experiments should be performed, to find out if epigenetic effects really do emerge when eggs are hatched in water.

He adds that if Kammerer's claims are confirmed, the midwife toad could become the organism of choice for biologists studying how epigenetics affect the evolution of life. Historians may yet find the toad a useful way of demonstrating what can go wrong in the evolution of science. Robert Matthews is Visiting Reader in Science at Aston University, Birmingham, England.

How to avoid crypto fraud
  • Use unique usernames and passwords while enabling multi-factor authentication.
  • Use an offline private key, a physical device that requires manual activation, whenever you access your wallet.
  • Avoid suspicious social media ads promoting fraudulent schemes.
  • Only invest in crypto projects that you fully understand.
  • Critically assess whether a project’s promises or returns seem too good to be true.
  • Only use reputable platforms that have a track record of strong regulatory compliance.
  • Store funds in hardware wallets as opposed to online exchanges.

The 100 Best Novels in Translation
Boyd Tonkin, Galileo Press

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If you go
Where to stay: Courtyard by Marriott Titusville Kennedy Space Centre has unparalleled views of the Indian River. Alligators can be spotted from hotel room balconies, as can several rocket launch sites. The hotel also boasts cool space-themed decor.

When to go: Florida is best experienced during the winter months, from November to May, before the humidity kicks in.

How to get there: Emirates currently flies from Dubai to Orlando five times a week.
Cryopreservation: A timeline
  1. Keyhole surgery under general anaesthetic
  2. Ovarian tissue surgically removed
  3. Tissue processed in a high-tech facility
  4. Tissue re-implanted at a time of the patient’s choosing
  5. Full hormone production regained within 4-6 months
German intelligence warnings
  • 2002: "Hezbollah supporters feared becoming a target of security services because of the effects of [9/11] ... discussions on Hezbollah policy moved from mosques into smaller circles in private homes." Supporters in Germany: 800
  • 2013: "Financial and logistical support from Germany for Hezbollah in Lebanon supports the armed struggle against Israel ... Hezbollah supporters in Germany hold back from actions that would gain publicity." Supporters in Germany: 950
  • 2023: "It must be reckoned with that Hezbollah will continue to plan terrorist actions outside the Middle East against Israel or Israeli interests." Supporters in Germany: 1,250 

Source: Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution

COMPANY%20PROFILE%20
%3Cp%3E%3Cstrong%3ECompany%20name%3A%20%3C%2Fstrong%3EAlmouneer%3Cbr%3E%3Cstrong%3EStarted%3A%3C%2Fstrong%3E%202017%3Cbr%3E%3Cstrong%3EFounders%3A%3C%2Fstrong%3E%20Dr%20Noha%20Khater%20and%20Rania%20Kadry%3Cbr%3E%3Cstrong%3EBased%3A%20%3C%2Fstrong%3EEgypt%3Cbr%3E%3Cstrong%3ENumber%20of%20staff%3A%20%3C%2Fstrong%3E120%3Cbr%3E%3Cstrong%3EInvestment%3A%20%3C%2Fstrong%3EBootstrapped%2C%20with%20support%20from%20Insead%20and%20Egyptian%20government%2C%20seed%20round%20of%20%3Cbr%3E%243.6%20million%20led%20by%20Global%20Ventures%3Cbr%3E%3C%2Fp%3E%0A
A little about CVRL

Founded in 1985 by Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid, Vice President and Ruler of Dubai, the Central Veterinary Research Laboratory (CVRL) is a government diagnostic centre that provides testing and research facilities to the UAE and neighbouring countries.

One of its main goals is to provide permanent treatment solutions for veterinary related diseases. 

The taxidermy centre was established 12 years ago and is headed by Dr Ulrich Wernery. 

COMPANY PROFILE
Name: ARDH Collective
Based: Dubai
Founders: Alhaan Ahmed, Alyina Ahmed and Maximo Tettamanzi
Sector: Sustainability
Total funding: Self funded
Number of employees: 4
Nepotism is the name of the game

Salman Khan’s father, Salim Khan, is one of Bollywood’s most legendary screenwriters. Through his partnership with co-writer Javed Akhtar, Salim is credited with having paved the path for the Indian film industry’s blockbuster format in the 1970s. Something his son now rules the roost of. More importantly, the Salim-Javed duo also created the persona of the “angry young man” for Bollywood megastar Amitabh Bachchan in the 1970s, reflecting the angst of the average Indian. In choosing to be the ordinary man’s “hero” as opposed to a thespian in new Bollywood, Salman Khan remains tightly linked to his father’s oeuvre. Thanks dad. 

MATCH INFO

Tottenham Hotspur 1
Kane (50')

Newcastle United 0

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Disturbing%20facts%20and%20figures
%3Cp%3E%3Cstrong%3E51%25%3C%2Fstrong%3E%20of%20parents%20in%20the%20UAE%20feel%20like%20they%20are%20failing%20within%20the%20first%20year%20of%20parenthood%3C%2Fp%3E%0A%3Cp%3E%3Cstrong%3E57%25%20vs%2043%25%3C%2Fstrong%3E%20is%20the%20number%20of%20mothers%20versus%20the%20number%20of%20fathers%20who%20feel%20they%E2%80%99re%20failing%3C%2Fp%3E%0A%3Cp%3E%3Cstrong%3E28%25%3C%2Fstrong%3E%20of%20parents%20believe%20social%20media%20adds%20to%20the%20pressure%20they%20feel%20to%20be%20perfect%3C%2Fp%3E%0A%3Cp%3E%3Cstrong%3E55%25%3C%2Fstrong%3E%20of%20parents%20cannot%20relate%20to%20parenting%20images%20on%20social%20media%3C%2Fp%3E%0A%3Cp%3E%3Cstrong%3E67%25%3C%2Fstrong%3E%20of%20parents%20wish%20there%20were%20more%20honest%20representations%20of%20parenting%20on%20social%20media%3C%2Fp%3E%0A%3Cp%3E%3Cstrong%3E53%25%3C%2Fstrong%3E%20of%20parents%20admit%20they%20put%20on%20a%20brave%20face%20rather%20than%20being%20honest%20due%20to%20fear%20of%20judgment%3C%2Fp%3E%0A%3Cp%3E%3Cspan%20style%3D%22font-size%3A%2014px%3B%22%3ESource%3A%20YouGov%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fp%3E%0A
Guide to intelligent investing
Investing success often hinges on discipline and perspective. As markets fluctuate, remember these guiding principles:
  • Stay invested: Time in the market, not timing the market, is critical to long-term gains.
  • Rational thinking: Breathe and avoid emotional decision-making; let logic and planning guide your actions.
  • Strategic patience: Understand why you’re investing and allow time for your strategies to unfold.
 
 
COMPANY PROFILE
Name: HyperSpace
 
Started: 2020
 
Founders: Alexander Heller, Rama Allen and Desi Gonzalez
 
Based: Dubai, UAE
 
Sector: Entertainment 
 
Number of staff: 210 
 
Investment raised: $75 million from investors including Galaxy Interactive, Riyadh Season, Sega Ventures and Apis Venture Partners
Vidaamuyarchi

Director: Magizh Thirumeni

Stars: Ajith Kumar, Arjun Sarja, Trisha Krishnan, Regina Cassandra

Rating: 4/5

 

THE APPRENTICE

Director: Ali Abbasi

Starring: Sebastian Stan, Maria Bakalova, Jeremy Strong

Rating: 3/5

THE SPECS

Engine: 1.5-litre, four-cylinder turbo

Transmission: seven-speed dual clutch automatic

Power: 169bhp

Torque: 250Nm

Price: Dh54,500

On sale: now

Formula Middle East Calendar (Formula Regional and Formula 4)
Round 1: January 17-19, Yas Marina Circuit – Abu Dhabi
 
Round 2: January 22-23, Yas Marina Circuit – Abu Dhabi
 
Round 3: February 7-9, Dubai Autodrome – Dubai
 
Round 4: February 14-16, Yas Marina Circuit – Abu Dhabi
 
Round 5: February 25-27, Jeddah Corniche Circuit – Saudi Arabia
Brief scoreline

Switzerland 0

England 0

Result: England win 6-5 on penalties

Man of the Match: Trent Alexander-Arnold (England)

The nine articles of the 50-Year Charter

1. Dubai silk road

2.  A geo-economic map for Dubai

3. First virtual commercial city

4. A central education file for every citizen

5. A doctor to every citizen

6. Free economic and creative zones in universities

7. Self-sufficiency in Dubai homes

8. Co-operative companies in various sectors

­9: Annual growth in philanthropy

Sinopharm vaccine explained

The Sinopharm vaccine was created using techniques that have been around for decades. 

“This is an inactivated vaccine. Simply what it means is that the virus is taken, cultured and inactivated," said Dr Nawal Al Kaabi, chair of the UAE's National Covid-19 Clinical Management Committee.

"What is left is a skeleton of the virus so it looks like a virus, but it is not live."

This is then injected into the body.

"The body will recognise it and form antibodies but because it is inactive, we will need more than one dose. The body will not develop immunity with one dose," she said.

"You have to be exposed more than one time to what we call the antigen."

The vaccine should offer protection for at least months, but no one knows how long beyond that.

Dr Al Kaabi said early vaccine volunteers in China were given shots last spring and still have antibodies today.

“Since it is inactivated, it will not last forever," she said.

The specs

Engine: 3-litre twin-turbo V6

Power: 400hp

Torque: 475Nm

Transmission: 9-speed automatic

Price: From Dh215,900

On sale: Now

Other workplace saving schemes
  • The UAE government announced a retirement savings plan for private and free zone sector employees in 2023.
  • Dubai’s savings retirement scheme for foreign employees working in the emirate’s government and public sector came into effect in 2022.
  • National Bonds unveiled a Golden Pension Scheme in 2022 to help private-sector foreign employees with their financial planning.
  • In April 2021, Hayah Insurance unveiled a workplace savings plan to help UAE employees save for their retirement.
  • Lunate, an Abu Dhabi-based investment manager, has launched a fund that will allow UAE private companies to offer employees investment returns on end-of-service benefits.
The specs: Fenyr SuperSport

Price, base: Dh5.1 million

Engine: 3.8-litre twin-turbo flat-six

Transmission: Seven-speed automatic

Power: 800hp @ 7,100pm

Torque: 980Nm @ 4,000rpm

Fuel economy, combined: 13.5L / 100km

2024%20Dubai%20Marathon%20Results
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RESULT

Manchester City 1 Sheffield United 0
Man City:
Jesus (9')

The biog

Family: He is the youngest of five brothers, of whom two are dentists. 

Celebrities he worked on: Fabio Canavaro, Lojain Omran, RedOne, Saber Al Rabai.

Where he works: Liberty Dental Clinic 

WORLD CUP FINAL

England v South Africa

Yokohama International Stadium, Tokyo

Saturday, kick-off 1pm (UAE)

Company profile

Company: Eighty6 

Date started: October 2021 

Founders: Abdul Kader Saadi and Anwar Nusseibeh 

Based: Dubai, UAE 

Sector: Hospitality 

Size: 25 employees 

Funding stage: Pre-series A 

Investment: $1 million 

Investors: Seed funding, angel investors  

FORSPOKEN
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Starfield
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The specs

Engine: 3.8-litre twin-turbo flat-six

Power: 650hp at 6,750rpm

Torque: 800Nm from 2,500-4,000rpm

Transmission: 8-speed dual-clutch auto

Fuel consumption: 11.12L/100km

Price: From Dh796,600

On sale: now

Pieces of Her

Stars: Toni Collette, Bella Heathcote, David Wenham, Omari Hardwick   

Director: Minkie Spiro

Rating:2/5

Emergency

Director: Kangana Ranaut

Stars: Kangana Ranaut, Anupam Kher, Shreyas Talpade, Milind Soman, Mahima Chaudhry 

Rating: 2/5